Getting Started with Linux
We have developed this course for one basic reason: To bring the newcomer to Linux to the point where you can, using Linux, do everything that you do with MS Windows and much more. Due to the fact that Microsoft, enjoying an illegal monopoly, has its operating system installed on 90% of the world's computers, this course is mainly aimed at people who want to migrate to Linux from Microsoft products.
The simple fact that you are getting this course off the Internet presupposes that you know how to use a PC. The course should be oriented towards people migrating from other OSes and in particular, MS Windows 9x, ME, 2000 and XP.
Our objectives are:
- To explain the differences between working with Linux and working with other popular OSes.
- To stress that the somewhat steeper learning curve in Linux will pay back in the amount of stability and flexibility.
- To show that using Linux opens up a whole new world of computing. This means that a Linux user is not just a passive subject reacting to what the OS allows him/her to do but he/she is an active "developer" with complete control over the operating system.
Preparation
What is Linux?
Linux is an operating system that evolved from a kernel created by Linus Torvalds when he was a student at the
A brief history of Linux
When Linus Torvalds was studying at the
Free Software pre-Linux
This philosophy of asking for users' comments and suggestions and using them to improve computer programs was not new. Richard Stallman, who worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, had been advocating just such an approach to computer programming and use since the early 1970's. He was a pioneer in the concept of 'free software', always pointing out that 'free' means 'freedom', not zero cost. Finding it difficult to continue working under conditions that he felt went against his concept of 'free software' he left MIT in 1984 and founded GNU. The goal of GNU was to produce software that was free to use, distribute and modify. Linus Torvalds' goal 6 years later was basically the same: to produce an operating system that took into account user feedback.
The kernel
We should point out here that the focal point of any operating system is its 'kernel'. Without going into great detail, the kernel is what tells the big chip that controls your computer to do what you want the program that you're using to do. To use a metaphor, if you go to your favorite Italian restaurant and order 'Spaghetti alla Bolognese', this dish is like your operating system. There are a lot of things that go into making that dish like pasta, tomato sauce, meatballs and cheese. Well, the kernel is like the pasta. Without pasta, that dish doesn't exist. You might as well find some bread and make a sandwich. A plate of just pasta is fairly unappetizing. Without a kernel, an operating system doesn't exist. Without programs, a kernel is useless.
1991, a fateful year
In 1991, ideal conditions existed that would create Linux. In essence, Linus Torvalds had a kernel but no programs of his own, Richard Stallman and GNU had programs but no working kernel. Read the two men's own words about this:
Linus: "Sadly, a kernel by itself gets you nowhere. To get a working system you need a shell, compilers, a library etc."
RMS: The GNU Hurd is not ready for production use. Fortunately, another kernel is available. [It is called] Linux.
So combining the necessary programs provided by GNU in
Linux is introduced
Late in 1991, Linus Torvalds had his kernel and a few GNU programs wrapped around it so it would work well enough to show other people what he had done. And that's what he did. The first people to see Linux knew that Linus was on to something. At this point, though, he needed more people to help him. Here's what Linus had to say back in 1991.
"Are you without a nice project and dying to cut your teeth on an OS you can try to modify for your needs?... This post might just be for you."
People all over the world decided to take him up on it. At first, only people with extensive computer programming knowledge would be able to do anything with that early public version of Linux. These people started to offer their help. The version numbers of Linux were getting higher and higher. People began writing programs specifically to be run under Linux. Developers began writing drivers so different video cards, sound cards and other gadgets inside and outside your computer could use Linux. Nevertheless, throughout most of first part of the 1990's Linux did not get out of the 'GURU' stage. GURU is a term that has evolved to mean anyone who has special expertise in a particular subject. That is, you had to have special expertise in how computers worked to be able to install Linux in those days.
Linux, at first, not for everybody
Other popular software companies sold you a CD or a set of floppies and a brief instruction booklet and in probably less than a half an hour, you could install a fully working operating system on your PC. The only ability you needed was knowing how to read. Those companies had that intention when they actually sat down and developed their operating systems. Linus Torvalds didn't have that in mind when he developed Linux. It was just a hobby for him. Later on, companies like Red Hat made it their goal to bring Linux to the point where it could be installed just like any other operating system; by anyone who can follow a set of simple instructions, and they have succeeded. For some reason, though, Linux hasn't completely lost its 'Gurus only' image. This is largely because of the popular tech press' inability to explain in a meaningful way what Linux is. The truth is that few tech reporters have real life experience with Linux and it is reflected in their writing.
Linux Today
Today, Linux is enjoying a favorable press for the most part. This comes from the fact that Linux has proven to be a tremendously stable and versatile operating system, particularly as a network server. When Linux is deployed as a web server or in corporate networks, its down-time is almost negligible. There have been cases when Linux servers have been running for more than a year without re-booting and then only taken down for a brief period for routine maintenance. Its cost effectiveness has sold it more than anything else. Linux can be installed on a home PC as well as a network server for a fraction of the cost of other companies' software packages. More reliability and less cost - it's ideal.
If you're reading this, you're obviously here to learn how to use Linux. Any learning experience means opening up to new ideas and new ways of doing things. As mentioned before, Linux is in the UNIX family of operating systems. UNIX is primarily designed to be used by professionals. You will have to learn some UNIX concepts in this lesson, but that doesn't mean that Linux is a professionals-only operating system. In fact, most major versions of Linux are designed to be as user-friendly and as easy to install as any other operating system on the market today.
Now that you know what Linux is and how good it is, there's one more thing we have to do - install Linux!
Installing Linux
Some preliminary considerations.
There are many different versions of Linux. Unlike other commercial operating systems that are controlled by one company, Linux is free to distribute and use. So, in the Linux world, there is a situation unlike what occurs in the proprietary operating system world: a number of companies, organizations and individuals have developed their own "versions" of the Linux operating system, known as distributions. There are versions of Linux that were developed to be installed on computers that receive heavy traffic, so to speak, like webpage servers. Some were developed to be used in networks where security is a priority; where sensitive information should only be accessed by a privileged few. There are versions of Linux that are meant to be installed on top of an existing operating system like Windows so people can try out Linux under familiar conditions. There are versions of Linux that are designed to be installed on platforms like Macintosh. There are versions of Linux with funny names like "Chainsaw Linux" (no kidding) and "Tutti-Frutti Linux" (yes, it's a joke)
What Linux is right for me?
This is a very difficult question to answer. To use an analogy, if I were going mountain climbing, I would need specific clothes to protect me from scrapes, the cold, wind, rain and other adverse climactic conditions. If I were going to a formal dinner, I would need a tuxedo. If I were going about my daily routine, I would wear "normal" clothes. There are computer world equivalents of mountain climbing and formal dinners as well as just sitting around the house. Linux has been fit into all those environments and more. There is even the equivalent of a swimsuit in Linux - a very scaled down version - just to cover the essentials.
Most PC users probably just need the everyday version. This kind of Linux has been widely available for some time now. Since Microsoft makes its living selling people "ordinary" operating systems, they have a lot to lose if Linux ever gets popular with the masses. For this reason they have done everything in their power to "warn" the public that Linux is something that you probably don't want and don't need. But in reality, Linux is just as easily installed and supports just as wide a range of hardware as Microsoft Windows does. The PR department at Microsoft is coming up with fewer and fewer reasons not to use Linux.
Linux on PCs containing Intel-based CPUs
It would be impossible to cover all of the different types of Linux so this lesson will only deal with standard versions of Linux that are meant to be installed on PCs with Intel-based CPUs. You may have heard of some of the companies and organizations that have created distributions for this platform, like Debian, Mandrake, Red Hat and SuSE . There are others as well. There are even versions of Linux that offer documentation and install programs in languages other than English. We should say here that it is not our intention to endorse the products of the companies we have mentioned here nor do we want to slight those companies that we haven't mentioned.
Linux Online maintains a list of all kinds of distributions. We invite you to consult that list before deciding on installing any version of Linux.
Prepare your manuals
As we mentioned before, the major versions of Linux have perfected their products to such a degree that they are very easy to install. Well designed programs will take you through the process of installation step by step so that you will be able to get Linux up and running in a relatively short period of time without any headaches. But even commercial operating systems that are billed as being the most user-friendly in the world can't guarantee a 100% problem-free installation.
The best thing to do before attempting to install Linux is to get the manuals that came with your PC out of the closet and dust them off. Major distributions of Linux have taken into account most standard hardware such as video cards, modems and sound cards, but as we said before, nobody can guarantee a problem-free installation for any operating system. Though you probably won't need them, they may help to track down a problem or prevent a future one. Now, go get those manuals, and we'll meet you in the next lesson!
An actual install
Most reputable PC resellers will hand you a stack of manuals when you buy your machine. But let's imagine that you got a hand-me-down PC from your big brother or sister or you picked up your PC at a garage sale or you got the PC from some other source that we really don't want to know about. You may be luckier than you thought. Linux will actually install more easily on older PCs than on some newer ones. Then again, it depends on how old it is. Don't try to install Linux on one of those old PCs with a monochrome monitor where everything comes out a yucky green color. That's TOO old!
Do you want a 'Dual-boot' system?
OK, with or without manuals, now it's time to install Linux. You've got your version of Linux and you just can't wait to use it. But there are a couple of questions you need to ask yourself.
- Do you have another operating system installed?
- Do you want to continue to use it?
If you want to keep an existing operating system, and install Linux as well, you will have what is known as a "dual-boot" system. That means that you have a PC that can use two different operating systems. I think that I should pause here and say that everything that you can do with your garden variety operating system, you can do with Linux. That means word processing, databases, spreadsheets, Internet browsers, e-mail, photo touch-ups, MP3, CD Players, cameras and then there are a lot of things that Linux has to offer on top of all that that other operating systems don't. The important thing is that you have the option to have both. Now, back to the install.
Downloading Linux
One of the most misunderstood concepts of Linux is that it is widely spoken of not so much as a "free" operating system but as a "freebie" operating system. 'What's the difference?' you may ask. The "free" ideally refers to the source code of Linux. Microsoft won't give you the source code to their products so you can make improvements (and we all know how much they need them), but the majority of Linux distributions come with the source code - or at least for the programs that aren't proprietary.
The "free" that most people think of is the free of "freebie" or "handout". This is somewhat fictitious. The truth is that there is nothing in this world that comes at zero cost. If you happen to have a fast Internet connection and a CD burner, you may download ISO images of the Linux distribution you have chosen (and that lets you have them free of charge), but it has cost you money for the CDs and your time (the costliest thing of all). Linux really should never be touted as a zero cost option, but better as an operating system that can be obtained and maintained at a very low cost.
If you don't happen to have a fast connection and a CD burner, you can still get Linux, though, at very little cost. You can pick up a nice boxed set from the makers of commercial distributions. Personal PC users can pick up a nice operating system for home use for around 30-50 US dollars. These usually come with 90 days of tech support, via email, in most cases. You can also get Linux from PC magazines that will often provide CDs of the major Linux distributions and some basic installation instructions for just the cost of the magazine.
Our pick for an example walk-through installation and setup with be Debian GNU/Linux.
Debian GNU/Linux
As it would be impossible in this course to talk about and give installation instructions for all of the Linux distributions, we have chosen Debian GNU/Linux for an example install. Why have we chosen this distribution?
It is:
- A solid, quality Linux distribution with a long history (in Linux terms)
- Non-profit and non-commercial (which lets us off the hook on a lot of issues!)
- Applicable to a wide range of uses and users, from newcomer to seasoned IT professional.
- Easily obtained and updated.
About Debian
The Debian project was founded by Ian Murdock in 1993. Debian gets its name from the combination of Ian Murdoch and his wife Debra's name (Deb-Ian) One of the Linux community's most illustrious people has been a primary developer of Debian. I'm talking about Bruce Perens. He was one of the founders of Pixar, the company that created the Toy Story films, Monsters Inc. and Finding Nemo.
Debian has no company behind it. The Debian project is sponsored by Software in the Public Interest, a non-profit organization dedicated to helping produce open-source software and hardware. Despite its not-for-profit status, Debian is an extremely versatile distribution. It forms the base of many user-friendly distributions like Ubuntu, Linspire and Xandros. It can also be found running on thousands of mission critical servers that have to be up 24/7.
Though the installation procedure is not as easy as some commercial distributions, it cannot be described as difficult either. We will go over this in more detail shortly. The major advantage to Debian is that it can be updated easily via their much lauded apt-get system.
Getting Debian GNU/Linux
If you have a broadband connection (cable, xDSL or better), you can easily obtain this distribution and install it. There are two major ways to do this. The most popular is to burn the Debian ISO images to CDs and install. If you have a CD burner, this is an ideal option. The second is to obtain a minimal ISO image especially designed for an install over the Internet. With this option, the files are downloaded as the installer needs them. This can also be done by downloading floppy disk image files instead of CD images. More information on these methods can be found at http://www.debian.org/distrib/
If you don't happen to have a broadband connection, downloading Debian would be an extremely frustrating experience. You may want to consider contacting a local distributor of Debian CDs. Consult this page for further information about distributors in your area: http://www.debian.org/CD/vendors/
Installation from CD
This is probably going to be the most common way of installing Debian, so we go over installation using this method.
Preliminary considerations
You may be wondering if you can keep another operation system (ie. MS Windows - which other one is there?) on your computer. You can.
Are we going to explain how to do it? Not in great detail. Why? There are a couple of reasons:
- Lack of experience with the newer Microsoft products.
The author must admit that he's installed a great number of Linux distributions side by side with Windows 9.x products. He hasn't done it with any of the more recent ones, so advice on doing it would be of dubious quality. - There's very little you can do with Microsoft products that Linux won't let you do as well.
Enough said there. - We don't work for Microsoft
We advocate alternatives to Microsoft products and not the continued use of them, even in a "second fiddle" role.
What we can say about dual-booting
If you happen to have MS Windows 9.x you must repartition your hard drive to make room for Linux. You can either erase the drive and repartition a blank drive or you can attempt to repartition a working hard drive. Ideally, what was done in the "old" days was to install Windows in C: and D: partitions. This is relatively easy to deal with. As a matter of fact, my first install of Slackware Linux was on the D: partition of my Windows workstation.
If you've got one partition with Windows on it, there are some supposedly non-destructive re-sizing tools. They always tell you to back up your data before proceeding, so I always figure - what's the use in re-sizing when you can start clean from scratch. You may decide you want to throw away Windows all together!
Summing up, I recommend Linux-only installations. Linux has become quite "mature" as an end-user operating system, so I find these stories about being "weaned" off Windows to be ridiculous (the exception, supposedly, being those who run the financial software 'Quicken'). If you've bought a new car, you don't have to be "weaned" off that. You just trade in the old one and start driving the new one. The graphic user interfaces available plus the ever-growing numbers of productivity applications (office suites, browsers, email applications, etc.) make it such that a MS Windows user could have his/her workstation switched with a Linux machine overnight and they would barely break a sweat getting used to it. Everything works very much in the same way.
Installation of Debian GNU/Linux
Booting from a CD
Chances are, if your PC is less than 5 years old, you can start a Linux installation right from the CD-ROM drive. The way to find out is to look at your computer's BIOS. There's really no need here to go into what your BIOS is or what it does. Let's just say that it's there and you need it for your computer to work. When you turn on your computer, there's a little message that says 'Press
If you can't boot from your CD there's an option to create a boot floppy. In your machine's BIOS, you might just see A,C - C,A and there's no CD-ROM mentioned there. Don't panic. You can make a boot floppy. They often come with boxed sets, but if you yours didn't come with one, we'll cover how to create one further along.
Partitioning
Your hard disk is like a pie. You can divide it into sections. Unlike a pie, after you've divided it, you can't give a piece to the dog. My dog did try to eat my hard disk once and he really relishes the floppies I leave lying around, but alas, I digress. For example, if you had two partitions, popular operating systems would generally call them C and D. You can call them Ginger and Fred, or Ginger and Marianne or even the Professor and Marianne if you like. I just use these bad jokes as a way of saying that C and D are naming conventions that belong to other operating systems. Linux doesn't use them. Linux may call them /hda3 and /hda5 for example. We'll get to that in a minute. Then you will need another partition known as a 'swap' partition. This 'swap' partition is just a way that Linux uses to get more memory so that you don't run out of it.
The classic way of partitioning your hard disk is with a program called 'fdisk' The program comes with a lot of whistles and buzzers and flashing messages that say "Danger, Will Robinson". There's a version for Linux but it doesn't mention Will Robinson. We want to say here that this is the SWAT team method of doing it - the scorched-earth policy of partitioning. If you have that important term paper on your hard disk, or pictures of that dream vacation to Hawaii that you haven't shown to your Aunt Betty yet or your best DOOM scores, you'll need to make back-up copies of them. The re-partioning using this method will get rid of them - forever! [cue ominous organ music].
But installing Linux isn't dangerous and if you choose to install you may not need such a drastic solution to your partition problem. As we mentioned before, If you're fortunate enough to have a hard drive with more than one partition (the old C: and D: routine), then it may be just a question of moving some files around. Unfortunately this lesson can't take into account everybody's individual circumstances.
There's a tool called FIPS that comes with major Linux versions. This will re-arrange your hard drive so you can install Linux. There are also other commercial products that will do the same. That may be an option for you, unless you've got a hard drive that's bursting at the seams. You should know that any decent working Linux system - and by decent, I mean, having the programs that will let you do anything you did with your Windows system- will take at least 2 gigabytes. Please keep that in mind. And if you want those photos of
To talk about where Linux and other operating systems should go. In any situation where you've got two things sharing the same space, like two people sharing the same apartment, one person will always exert his rights over the other. Other operating systems usually want to be the only ones in the computer, so even though it's really not going to be this way, you have to install them in the first 'primary' partition, and that way it thinks it's the only one there. That means installing it in /hda1 in Linux speak. So remember, if you've chosen to go the fdisk route, the other operating system should be re-installed first. When you've got that re-installed, you are free to install Linux in what's left. Once you've installed Linux, you can actually see the other system's partition, sort of like those phony mirrors at the supermarket. We'll talk more about that in another lesson.
Plunk that CD in the drive
Okay. Now is the moment of truth. We've got the CD in the drive, and we're ready to go. Restart the computer. This should now boot the Linux kernel located on your CD
What you'll have to do first is partition the hard drive. There is an easy way to do this. You can dedicate the whole hard disk or non-Windows partition (depending on the type of install you're doing). There is a better alternative. That is to partition your hard disk even further and put "parts" of Linux on separate partitions. For example, this is the scheme that works for me:
Let's take a 10 gigabyte hard drive as an example. First, you should see how much RAM you have. From this figure, you create what's known as a SWAP partition. This is simply a way that Linux uses to get an extra memory boost. Custom dictates that your swap partition be double your ram memory. So if you've got 256 megabytes of RAM, the feel free to make a 500 megabyte swap partition. Then my partition scheme ends up looking like this:
| Partition | Location | Size |
| swap | /dev/hda2 | 500 mb |
| / (boot) | /dev/hda1 | 1.2 gb |
| /usr | /dev/hda3 | 3.5 gb |
| /home | /dev/hda4 | 5 gb |
Assign partitions to look like this. Don't worry about the /usr and /home parts. That will come after. You must indicate here that you want / to be the bootable partition. /usr will contain most of the programs that will run on your machine. /home will contain your personal files. This kind of a partition scheme may come in handy if you have problems with your hard disk. You may be able to save information if it's located in different partitions easier than if it were only one big partition.
Before we actually assign the other partitions their places and functions, we need to initialize and activate a the swap partition. Do this now.
Now you should initialize the / partition - the one that will boot the Linux kernel.
Now, there is what I consider a little glitch in the Debian install. It doesn't really take into account that you want to initialize /usr and /home partitions. Don't go to the next step yet. You should go back and initialize these partitions now before proceeding.
Sundry installation tasks
At this point you should have your hard drive partitioned and these partitions assigned to what areas they'll be housing.
Now, comes the point in the process to install the Linux kernel. You can choose additional parts to add to the kernel, known as modules, to better use your hardware. Debian does a pretty good job of auto-detecting what you have, so there shouldn't be any need to touch anything here. People who know that they're going to have to use foreign character fonts may want to add additional support for font sets.
At this point, you'll have to choose a 'hostname' or name for your computer. Use whatever naming scheme is comfortable for you. After, you should choose a 'domain' name. Even if you're not running an Internet server and even if you don't have a network you should choose a name as if you had one. Normally if you were in fact a server providing Internet services, you would choose a name and append .com, .net etc on the end. I would, of course, be a name registered with an official domain name registry. In the case of a single machine or a network that's connected to the outside only by way of a dial-up connection, you should choose a single name without the dot extension.
Now you should enter your ISP's domain name server IPs. Each block (the four numbered set separated by periods) should be separated by a space.
Now, as we're installing from a CD, you should choose 'CD-Rom' for the installation procedure. You should also choose the settings 'make system bootable'.
Your hard disk is basically a piece of metal with a metal disk flying around in it at incredible speeds. It essentially does nothing unless you tell it to do. At this point, we're going to tell it to boot up the Linux operating system. If you're contemplating a dual-boot system, you can also tell it to ask you to choose from different operating systems at boot. Debian uses a program called 'LILO' to do this. Later, you can actually make alternative versions of the Linux kernel and have LILO boot them. Right now, your safest bet is to install LILO in the 'master boot record' when the install program asks you. The "MBR" is a little slice of the hard disk pie reserved for moments like this!
The program will now ask you to create a rescue floppy. These will come in handy. For example, I have often made the fatal mistake of *not* correctly configuring LILO when I have made a new Linux kernel (yes, you can make them from scratch!) and my system has become unbootable. You can always rely on a rescue floppy to get you out of this situation.
OK, now's the time to reboot the basic system that Debian has installed. You need to remove the floppy and the CD from the drives. It might be a good idea now, as your machine reboots, to go back into the BIOS and set it back for the machine to boot from your hard drive first (instead of from your CD drive). But at least make sure to remove the CD or else it will boot the CD again and start the install process again.
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